تقسيم بندی روش تحقيق در علوم رفتاری

Research Method

Research is a purposeful, precise and systematic search for new knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, or for the re-interpretation of existing knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.

The various kinds of human science research can be subdivided according to three criteria:

1    The measure of generality and applicability:

• basic research
• applied research
• in-service research
• action research

2    The level of ordering:

• descriptive research
• prophetic research
• diagnostic research

3    The measure of control by researchers:

• library research
• field research
• laboratory research

METHODS OF RESEARCH:

• Exploratory research
• Experimental research
• Ex post facto research
• Correlation research
• Descriptive research
• Testing research
• Case studies
• Sociometric research
• Instrumental-nomological research
• Interpretative-theoretical research

OTHER NAMES GIVEN TO RESEARCH:

• Micro-study
• Macro-study
• Longitudinal (diachronic) study
• Cross-sectional (synchronic) study
• Pilot study

AN OVERVIEW OF SOME RESEARCH METHODS:

1      Action research

Action research is regarded as research that is normally carried out by practitioners (persons that stand in the field of work). It is a method par excel lance for instructors/trainers. It enables the researcher to investigate a specific problem that exists in practice. According to Landman (1988: 51) this requires that the researcher should be involved in the actions that take place. A further refinement of this type of research is that the results obtained from the research should be relevant. to the practice. In other words it should be applicable immediately. This means that the, researcher, as expert, and the person standing in the practice, jointly decide on the formulation of research procedures, allowing the problem to be solved (Jacobs et al. 1992: 431).

Action research is characterized according to (Jacobs et al. 1992: 45) by the following four features:

Problem-aimed research focuses on a special situation in practice. Seen in research context, action research is aimed at a specific problem recognizable in practice, and of which the outcome problem solving) is immediately applicable in practice.

– Collective participation. A second characteristic is that all participants (for instance the researchers and persons standing in the practice) form an integral part of action research with the exclusive aim to assist in solving the identified problem.

– Type of empirical research. Thirdly, action research is characterized as a means to change the practice while the research is going on.

Outcome of research can not be generalized. Lastly, action research is characterized by the fact that problem solving, seen as renewed corrective actions, can not be generalized, because it should comply with the criteria set for scientific character.

2      Historical research

Historical research, as the term implies, is research based on describing the past. This type of research includes for instance investigations like the recording , analysis and interpretation of events in the past with the purpose of discovering generalizations and deductions that can be useful in understanding the past, the present and to a limited extent, can anticipate the future (Landman 1988: 65). Historians should consequently aspire to getting to the original events that took place and therefore the researcher is dependent on the availability of documentary sources.

According to Klopper (1990: 62) collected data for historical research should pass the following test before it can be applied for research purposes namely:

• external evidence or criteria that will account for the authenticity of the information should be included;
• internal evidence or criteria should be included that will explain the meaning of the data.

Although the chronological sequence of events should be precisely acknowledged , researchers should bear in mind the fact that mere compilation of chronological events is not considered research in itself. An investigation can only be regarded as scientific research when the researcher interprets the events that took place by pointing out their relationship to the problem investigated, and explaining their meaning.

On account of the voluminous data that historians collect, it is extremely important that attention should be given to a specific plan for the obtaining and organizing of information as well as the retrieval thereof, before this type of research is attempted.

Lastly, it should be mentioned that historical research also encompasses research concerning the origin, development and influence of ideas of the past. As examples, aspects like the origin, development and influence of communism, democracy, capitalism etc can be mentioned. Should you like to do this type of research you can consult the recommended literature listed in the bibliography.

3      Descriptive research

The term descriptive is self-explanatory and terminology synonymous to this type of research is: describe, write on, depict. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it.

Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions and degree in detail of the present situation (Landman 1988: 59). The emphasis is on describe rather than on judge or interpret.

According to Klopper (1990: 64) researchers who use this method for their research usually aim at:

• demarcating the population (representative of the universum) by means of perceiving accurately research parameters; and
• recording in the form of a written report of that which has been perceived.

The aim of the latter is, that when the total record has been compiled, revision of the documents can occur so that the perceptions derived at can be thoroughly investigated .

Because the total population (universum) during a specific investigation can not be contemplated as a whole, researchers make use of the demarcation of the population or of the selection of a representative test sample. Test sampling therefore forms an integral part of descriptive research. In descriptive research the following steps should be included:

• Problem selection and problem formulation. The research problem being tested should be explicitly formulated in the form of a question.
• Literature search. Intensive literature search regarding the formulated problem enables the researcher to divide the problem into smaller units.
• Problem reduction.
• Hypothesis formulation.
• Test sampling. The researcher should determine the size of the test sample.
• Information retrieval. The application of appropriate information retrieval techniques to comply with the criteria set for authenticity and competency, is relevant.
• General planning. Any research requires sound planning.
• Report writing. The report entails the reproduction of factual information, the interpretation of data, conclusions derived from the research and recommendations.

You should make sure that you understand the meaning of the terminology used.  Consult the recommended sources for detailed explanations. However, further reference must be made to aspects related to test sampling.

• Test sampling

As mentioned previously, when descriptive research is exposed, demarcation of the population become unavoidable. Test sampling therefor forms an integra! part of this type of research.

Two important questions arise frequently when test sampling is anticipated by researchers, namely:

–     How big should the test sample be?

–     What is the probability of mistakes occurring in the use of test sampling (instead of the whole population)?

Special care should be taken with the selection of test samples. The results obtained from a survey can never be more authentic than the standard of the population or the representatives of the test sample, according to Klopper (1990: 64). The size of the test sample can also be specified by means of statistics. It is important for the researcher to bear in mind that it is desirable that test sampling be made as large as possible. The most important criterium that serves as a guideline here, is the extent to which the test sample corresponds with the qualities and characteristics of the general population being investigated. The next three factors should be taken into consideration before a decision is made with regard to the size of the test sample:

–     What is the grade of accuracy expected between the test sample and the general population?

–     What is the variability of the population? (This, in general terms, is expressed as the standard deviation.)

–     What methods should be used in test sampling?

• Bias saying

When you attempt descriptive research, you should take care that the test sample reflects the actual population it represents. The following example holds validity for the latter: you cannot make a statement regarding all first-year students if you do not include all first-year students in your research. If you do make such a statement, you have to select enrolled first-year students at all the tertiary institutions or a balanced proportional manner, and include the latter when you select your test sample for your research.

Landman ( 1988: 91) points out that, when a test sample does not truly represent the population (universum) from which it is drawn, the test sample is considered a bias sample. It then becomes virtually impossible to make an accurate statement or to predict about the population.

4     Experimental research

This type of research is known in literature by a variety of names. Synonyms are, for instance: the cause and consequence method, before and after design, control group design and the laboratory method. Landman (1988: 82) summarises experiential research when he states that it is research designed to study cause and consequence. A clear distinction between the terms experiment and experimental research should be evident. In the former there is normally no question about the interpretation of data in the discovery of new meaning. Experimental research, however, has control as fundamental characteristic. The selection of control groups, based on proportional selection, forms the basis of this type of research. Experimental research is basically the method that can be applied in a research laboratory. The basic structure of this type of research is elementary: two situations (cause and consequence) are assessed in order to make a comparison. Following this, attempts should be made to treat the one situation (cause) from the outside (external variable) to affect change, and then to reevaluate the two situations. The perceivable changes that occurred can then be presumed as caused by external variables.

• Control group

Because: control is a fundamental characteristic of this type of research, control groups are a prerequisite. Control groups are selected from a group of selected persons whose experience corresponds with that of the experimental group. The only difference is that they do not receive the same treatment (Landman 1988: 58).

• Variable

In order to do experimental! research, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the terms dependent and independent variables. In experimental research it is a prerequisite that the researcher should be able to manipulate the variable and then to assess what the influence of the manipulation on the variable was.

A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on different values. Objects are usually not considered as variables – but their characteristics are. As example the following can be considered: a transparency is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics of the transparency are variables, for example the colour, design etc. In other words, a transparency as an object can take on different values.

• Independent variable

According to Landman (1988: 98) the independent variable is the circumstances or characteristics which the researcher can manipulate in his effort to determine what their connection with the observed phenomenon is. This means that the researcher has direct control over the variable. As example of an independent variable, is study methods.

• Dependent variable

The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the circumstances or characteristics that change, disappear or appear when the researcher implements the independent variable. For example, learning content that should be mastered (student performance) is the dependent variable, while the manipulation of study methods by means of different teaching methods, is the independent variable.

• Internal and external validity

The importance of control in conducting experimental research has been pointed out earlier. A further pre-requisite for this type of research is validity.

Validity is a term used in research methodology that indicates the extent to which a test complies with the aim it was designed for. (You should ensure that you understand the terminology used.)

–    Internal validity

Internal validity means that the perceived difference in the independent variable (characteristics that change) is a direct result of the manipulation of the obtained research results, and therefore possible to conclude. In experimental design, emphasis is placed on the way in which reference between independent and dependent variables should not be confused by the presence of uncontrolled variables (Landman 1988: 97).

–    External validity

External validity means that the results of the experimental research should be applied to a similar situation outside the experimental design. The results of the experimental research can then be confirmed in similar situations. (The findings are then considered general.)

5     Ex post facto-research

Experimental research, where the researcher manipulates the independent variable, whilst the dependable variable are controlled with the aim of establishing the effect of the independent variable on the dependable variable, is also applicable.

The term ex post facto according to Landman (1988: 62) is used to refer to an experiment in which the researcher, rather than creating the treatment, examines the effect of a naturally occurring treatment after it has occurred. In other words it is a study that attempts to discover the pre-existing causal conditions between groups.

It should, however, be pointed out that the most serious danger of ex post facto-research is the conclusion that because two factors go together, one is the cause and the other is the effect.

Jacobs et al. (1992: 81) refers to the following procedures when conducting ex post facto-research:

–     The. first step should be to state the problem.

–     Following this is the determination of the group to be investigated. Two groups of the population that differ with regard to the variable, should be selected in a proportional manner for the test sample.

–     Groups, according to variables, are set equal by means of paring off and statistical techniques of identified independent and dependent variables.

–     Data is collected. Techniques like questionnaires, interviews, literature search etc:. are used to determine the differences.

–     Next follows the interpretation of the research results. The hypothesis is either confirmed or rejected.

Lastly it should be mentioned that this type of research has shortcomings, and that only partial control is possible.

6    RESOURCE LIST

Jacobs, CD; Haasbroek, JB & Theron, SW  1992 Effektiewe Navorsing.  Navorsingshandleiding vir tersi�re opleidingsinrigtings.   Geesteswetenskaplike komponent.  Pretoria: Universiteit van Pretoria.

Klopper, CH  1990  Referaat gelewer tydens ‘n vergadering van lede van die vereniging van SA Bourekenaars:  Komitee van hoofde van bourekenaarsdepartemente by universiteite gehou op 29 September 1989.  UP-dosent, 11(2): 43 – 72.

Landman, WA  1988  Navorsingsmetodologiese Grondbegrippe.  Pretoria: Serva.